The God-is-Father Rule: “Theos” in the New Testament

Written By Martin Robinson

Back in 1950, Karl Rahner wrote an article titled Theos Im Neuen Testament, or Theos in the New Testament.[1] Rahner’s article attempts to understand how, according to the teachings of the Church, the Christian understanding of God is distinctly different from pagan and philosophical views.

One thing that stood out to me is the section which outlines how the Greek term Theos (Θεός) usually refers to God the Father. I want to pause and think about this a little more in this article.

Here’s the basic thesis, which I call the God-is-Father Rule:

In the New Testament, the word Theos always refers to God the Father, except when it obviously doesn’t.

As far as I can tell, Christians have believed this rule since the days of the New Testament. It’s kind of intuitive. But sometimes, things that go without saying need to be said.

This little thesis is a really helpful tool for reading the Bible. In the New Testament, this word appears 1149 times. Therefore, it’s important to pause and consider who the word refers to.

Theos Obviously Refers to The Father

There are certain places where Theos obviously refers to the Father. I can think of several phrases that make this abundantly clear.

  1. Verses referring to “God the Father”

First, there are the verses that refer to “God the Father”. For example:

John 6:27 NIV: Do not work for food that spoils, but for food that endures to eternal life, which the Son of Man will give you. For on him God the Father has placed his seal of approval.

1 Corinthians 8:6: Yet for us there is but one God the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.

1 Corinthians 15:24: Then the end will come, when he hands over the kingdom to God the Father after he has destroyed all dominion, authority and power.

Galatians 1:1: Paul, an apostle—sent not from men nor by a man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised him from the dead—

Ephesians 5:20: Always giving thanks to God the Father for everything, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Ephesians 6:23: Peace to the brothers and sisters, and love with faith from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Philippians 2:11: And every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.

Colossians 1:3: We always thank God the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ when we pray for you.

Colossians 3:17: And whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.

1 Thessalonians 1:1: Paul, Silas and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace and peace to you.

2 Thessalonians 1:2: Grace and peace to you from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Timothy 1:2: To Timothy my true son in the faith: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

2 Timothy 1:2: To Timothy, my dear son: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

Titus 1:4: To Titus, my true son in our common faith: Grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Saviour.

1 Peter 1:2: Who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, to be obedient to Jesus Christ and sprinkled with his blood: Grace and peace be yours in abundance.

2 Peter 1:17: He received honour and glory from God the Father when the voice came to him from the Majestic Glory, saying, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased."

2 John 3: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and from Jesus Christ, the Father’s Son, will be with us in truth and love.

Jude 1: Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James, To those who have been called, who are loved in God the Father and kept for Jesus Christ:

In each of these verses, “God” obviously refers to “the Father” because he is identified as God…the Father.

2. Verses referring to “God and Father”

Then, there are verses referring to the “God and Father” of Jesus. For example:

Romans 15:6: so that with one mind and one voice you may glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.

2 Corinthians 1:3: Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God and Father of all comfort,

2 Corinthians 11:31: The God and Father of the Lord Jesus, who is to be praised forever, knows that I am not lying.

Galatians 1:4: who gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father,

Ephesians 1:3: Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in the heavenly realms with every spiritual blessing in Christ.

Ephesians 4:6: one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all.

Philippians 4:20: To our God and Father be glory for ever and ever. Amen.

1 Thessalonians 1:3: We remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labour prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Thessalonians 3:11: Now may our God and Father himself and our Lord Jesus clear the way for us to come to you.

1 Thessalonians 3:13: May he strengthen your hearts so that you will be blameless and holy in the presence of our God and Father when our Lord Jesus comes with all his holy ones.

1 Peter 1:3: Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead,

Revelation 1:6: and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father—to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

In each of these verses, God is clearly identified as Father, in these cases, the Father of the Son, Jesus.

3. Verses referring to “God our Father”

Then there are verses referring to God as “God our Father”. For example,

Romans 1:7: To all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be his holy people: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Corinthians 1:3: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

2 Corinthians 1:2: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Galatians 1:3: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Ephesians 1:2: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Philippians 1:2: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Colossians 1:2: To God’s holy people in Colossae, the faithful brothers and sisters in Christ: Grace and peace to you from God our Father.

2 Thessalonians 1:1: Paul, Silas and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ:

2 Thessalonians 2:16: May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope,

Philemon 3: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

James 1:27: Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world.

This construction appears only in Paul’s letters, usually in the introduction, except in James 1:27. This reference to God as “our Father” clearly identifies God as our Father. It assumes the doctrine of adoption, the idea that we have been adopted as sons and daughters through union with Christ and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, so we can now relate to him as “our Father in heaven.”

So far, we’ve only accounted for 41 occurrences of the term Theos in the New Testament (3.6%). Admittedly, many of them come from Paul’s letters. However, these verses make a pretty compelling case that, at least in these cases, “God” refers to the Father.

4. Verses referring to the “Son of God”

Next, there are verses referring to the “Son of God” (Matthew 4:3, 4:6, 8:29, 14:33, 26:63, 27:40, 27:43, 27:54; Mark 1:1, 3:11, 15:39; Luke 1:35, 3:38, 4:3, 4:9, 4:41, 22:70; John 1:49, 5:25, 11:27, 19:7, 20:31; Acts 9:20; Romans 1:4; 2 Corinthians 1:19; Galatians 2:20; Ephesians 4:13; Hebrews 4:14, 6:6, 7:3, 10:29; 1 John 3:8, 4:15, 5:5, 5:10, 5:12, 5:13, 5:20; Revelation 2:18).

The title “Son of God” probably comes from Psalm 2:7, which uses the title as a royal designation for the king of Israel, emphasising the special relationship between God and the king, who was seen as God's chosen representative. This title is regularly applied to Jesus in the New Testament. While the title may not be an unquestionable prooftext for the doctrine of eternal generation, it certainly indicates that the one identified as “Son of God” is not identical with “God”. “God” is distinct from the “Son of God”.

The New Testament clearly portrays Jesus as God’s eternally begotten Son (John 5:26). Since this is so, the title “Son of God” makes it clear that “God” is not Jesus and, therefore, must be the Father of the Son.

As Karl Rahner remarked, the Son and the Spirit are not Son and Spirit of the Trinity, but Son of the Father and Spirit of the Father.

5. Verses referring to the “Spirit of God”

Then there are verses referring to the “Spirit of God” (Matthew 3:16, 12:28; Romans 8:9, 8:14, 15:19; 1 Corinthians 2:11, 2:14, 7:40, 12:3; Ephesians 4:30; 1 John 4:2).

The Spirit, also known as the “Holy Spirit,” is obviously distinct from God and is hence called the Spirit of God.

Could the “God” in “Spirit of God” refer to the Father and the Son?

Maybe.

The Son is also God (John 1:1, 14). And the Spirit is also referred to as the “Spirit of Christ” (Romans 8:9; 1 Peter 1:11), “Spirit of his Son” (Galatians 4:6), and the “Spirit of Jesus” (Philippians 1:19). Therefore, when he’s referred to as the “Spirit of God”. So, the Spirit is “of” the Son in a sense.

However, the fact that he’s referred to as “Spirit of Christ” makes me think that it means something different when it says “Spirit of God”. It’s referring to the Spirit of the Father.

6. “God” Distinguished from Christ

Then, there are several verses in which “God” is distinguished from Christ, so “God” must refer to the Father. Throughout his article Theos im Neuen Testament, Rahner highlights the following passages:

As you read each of these verses, it becomes clear that “God” must refer to the Father.

Summary. The texts referring to “God the Father,” “God and Father,” “God our Father,” “Son of God,” and “Spirit of God,” coupled with the various places where “God” is distinguished from Christ, suggest that “God” primarily refers to the Father.

Except when it doesn’t.

Theos Obviously Doesn’t Refer to The Father

There are also places where Theos doesn’t refer to the Father. I can think of seven situations in which this is the case.

  1. False “gods”

First, there are cases when Theos refers to false gods. For example:

John 10:34: Jesus answered them, “Is it not written in your Law, ‘I have said you are "gods"’?

John 10:35: If he called them ‘gods,’ to whom the word of God came—and Scripture cannot be set aside—

Acts 7:40: They told Aaron, ‘Make us gods who will go before us. As for this fellow Moses who led us out of Egypt—we don’t know what has happened to him!’

Acts 7:43: You have taken up the tabernacle of Molek and the star of your god Rephan, the idols you made to worship. Therefore I will send you into exile beyond Babylon.

Acts 19:26: And you see and hear how this fellow Paul has convinced and led astray large numbers of people here in Ephesus and in practically the whole province of Asia. He says that gods made by human hands are no gods at all.

1 Corinthians 8:5: For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many “gods” and many “lords”).

In each of these cases, it’s pretty apparent that “god” or “gods” does not refer to God the Father. And in John 10:35, it’s pretty obvious that “gods” is distinct from “God.” Our rule would lead us to conclude that this God is God the Father.

2. Satan

In 2 Corinthians 4:4, the word “god” is used to refer to Satan:

The god of this age has blinded the minds of unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel that displays the glory of Christ, who is the image of God.

The title “god of this age” does not imply that Satan is divine. Instead, it highlights his temporary authority and power within the fallen world. The true God is the one whom Christ images.

3. The Man of Lawlessness

2 Thessalonians 2:4 depicts the Man of Lawlessness as a rival God.

He will oppose and will exalt himself over everything that is called god or is worshipped, so that he sets himself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be god.

He sets himself up in the temple of the true God and exalts himself above other false “gods” (this verse could be included under point 1 above). He obviously isn’t the true God himself.

4. Paul

Paul was a very gifted missionary. He was a very talented letter-writer. But he wasn’t God, despite what people thought. In Acts, we read:

Acts 14:11: When the crowd saw what Paul had done, they shouted in the Lycaonian language, “The gods have come down to us in human form!”

Acts 28:6: The people expected him to swell up or suddenly fall dead; but after waiting a long time and seeing nothing unusual happen to him, they changed their minds and said he was a god.

People legitimately thought Paul was a god. Paul himself is quite clear that this is not the case, as we’ve already seen above:

1 Corinthians 8:6: Yet for us there is but one God, the Father…

There is only one God, and it’s not Paul; it’s God, the Father.

5. Gut

Paul also helps us understand that our guts are not God.

Philippians 3:19: Their destiny is destruction, their god is their stomach, and their glory is in their shame. Their mind is set on earthly things.

For some people, gut is God. I write this article on Boxing Day, and I fear that I may have been guilty of treating my gut as God last night. The ham was really tasty. Nevertheless, the passage makes it clear that this isn’t a reference to God the Father.

6. The Holy Spirit

The New Testament has much to say about the Spirit’s divinity. However, it only ever refers to the Spirit as “God” once.

Acts 5:3: Then Peter said, “Ananias, how is it that Satan has so filled your heart that you have lied to the Holy Spirit and have kept for yourself some of the money you received for the land? 4 Didn’t it belong to you before it was sold? And after it was sold, wasn’t the money at your disposal? What made you think of doing such a thing? You have not lied just to human beings but to God.” 

Ananias lies to the Holy Spirit (verse 3) when he keeps some of the money for himself. But Paul tells him that he is lying to God (verse 4).

This could mean that he has lied to God the Father by lying to the Holy Spirit. But to me, it seems more likely that he has lied to the Holy Spirit, who is also divine and, therefore, “God”.

7. Jesus

Finally, several verses ascribe the title Theos to Jesus, God’s Son. In these cases, Theos refers not to the person of the Father but to the divinity of the Son, who is divine, having been eternally begotten of the Father.

Matthew 1:23:

“The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel” (which means “God with us”).

While we usually call him Jesus, he’s also given the name Immanuel to express a truth about who he is: He is God coming to dwell with his people. Given what we read in the next verse (John 1:1), I take it that the word “God” refers specifically to his divinity rather than his being the Father.

Mark 2:7 (cf. Luke 5:21):

“Why does this fellow talk like that? He’s blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone.”

In the preceding verses, Jesus offers to forgive the sins of a paralytic man. For the teachers of the law, this is equivalent to claiming to be divine (cf. Isaiah 43:25). When they say that Jesus is claiming to be “God,” they don’t have “God the Father” in mind—they have no concept of the Trinity. However, Mark uses their words to highlight Jesus’ divinity and his equality with the Father.

John 1:1:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.

I take it that the first “God” here refers to the person of the Father, while the second “God” refers to the divinity of the Word (in verse 14, we find out that the Word is God’s Son, and in verse 17, we find out that God’s Son is Jesus). It doesn’t really make sense to read it any other way. Those who don’t understand basic biblical Greek try to argue that the Word was “a God”. But these people don’t understand Colwell’s Rule.

John 1:18:

No one has ever seen God, but the one and only Son, who is himself God and is in closest relationship with the Father, has made him known.

John 1:18 similarly refers to Jesus, here described as the “only Son,” as being “himself God.” This means that he is divine—truly God. But he is distinct from “the Father,” also referred to as “God” in this verse.

John 10:33:

“We are not stoning you for any good work,” they replied, “but for blasphemy, because you, a mere man, claim to be God.”

This example is similar to Mark 2:7. In the preceding verses, Jesus’ opponents have picked up stones to stone him (10:31). Jesus mentions that his works are “from the Father” (10:32). In verse 33, his opponents complain that he is claiming to be “God”. The Jewish opponents wouldn’t have had a clue about the Trinity. For them, “God” just means the God of the Old Testament. However, I take it that John keeps the language to point to Jesus’ divinity.

John 20:28:

Thomas said to him, “My Lord and my God!”

Thomas sees the risen Jesus and calls him “my Lord and my God.” The Lord–God combo highlights Jesus’ divinity. He is not the same person of the Trinity as the Father.

Romans 9:5:

Theirs are the patriarchs, and from them is traced the human ancestry of the Messiah, who is God over all, forever praised! Amen.

Paul identifies the Messiah as “God” over all things. This can’t be a reference to God the Father.

Philippians 2:5-6:

… Jesus Christ, who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be used to his own advantage.

We need to read this verse like we read John 1:1 and 1:18, distinguishing between “God” as divinity and “God” as Father. The first “God” refers to Jesus in his divine “nature”. He really is God. He really is divine. The second “God” refers to the person of the Father. This is the one whom God the Son is equal with. He’s further identified as “God the Father” in 2:11.

Titus 2:13:

While we wait for the blessed hope—the appearing of the glory of our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ …

2 Peter 1:1:

Simon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ, To those who through the righteousness of our God and Saviour Jesus Christ have received a faith as precious as ours:

According to Granville Sharp, an 18th-century scholar (who also happened to have strong opinions on town planning), when the Greek article (that is, the word “the” or “ὁ” in singular form) appears before two nouns connected by “καί” (the word “and”), and:

  1. The two nouns are in the same case,

  2. The two nouns are singular, and

  3. The two nouns are not proper names,
    then

  4. Both nouns refer to the same person or thing.

The Granville Sharp rule applies to Titus 2:13 and 2 Peter 1:1. In both verses, the two nouns (“God” and “Saviour”; θεοῦ and σωτῆρος) are in the same case (the genitive case), are singular, and are not proper nouns. Therefore, they refer to the same “thing”. What is that “thing”? Jesus Christ.

So, Theos doesn’t refer to God the Father here, either.

Hebrews 1:8:

But about the Son he says, “Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever; a scepter of justice will be the scepter of your kingdom.

A few verses earlier, the writer to the Hebrews asks, “to which of the angels did God ever say…” and then proceeds to cite some Old Testament verses. The “God” in verse 5 must be God the Father, given that, in verse 6, he says, “‘You are my Son; today I have become your Father’?” In verse 8, the writer cites Psalm 45. Now God the Father is calling the Son “God”. Therefore, the “God” in verse 8 can’t be a reference to the Father. The Son, here, is God.

1 John 5:20

We know also that the Son of God has come and has given us understanding, so that we may know him who is true. And we are in him who is true by being in his Son Jesus Christ. He is the true God and eternal life.

Some argue that the green “he” above refers to God the Father, described earlier in the verse as “him who is true.” Others argue that “he” refers to Jesus as “the true God and eternal life.” To me, this makes more sense. The use of “Son Jesus Christ” immediately preceding “He” seems to most naturally suggest that the subject is Jesus. Moreover, the phrase “eternal life” is closely associated with Jesus in other Johannine writings (e.g., John 14:6, 1 John 1:2).

Revelation 1:8:

“I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God, “who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.”

In the first chapter of Revelation, Jesus is very much in view. Here’s a quick summary. In verse 5, he’s referred to as “Jesus Christ”, “the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth”, and the one who “freed us from our sins by his blood. In verse 6, we discover that he’s done these things “to serve his God and Father.” In verse 7, we see him coming on the clouds of heaven. Then, in verse 8, he claims to be the Alpha and the Omega, as he does in verse 17 and Revelation 21:6 and 22:13. John tells us that the one making this claim is the Lord God. Here, the Lord “God” must be distinct from his “God and Father” in verse 6.

Summary. So, there are clearly times when “God” does not refer to the Father. The God-is-Father rule needs a bit of flexibility, hence the “except when it obviously doesn’t” clause. Nevertheless, the small number of exceptions (just over 2% of all occurrences of the word Theos) cannot drown out the overwhelming testimony of those places where Theos clearly refers to the Father.

Why This Matters

Biblical Interpretation

One of the main reasons I wrote this article was to help people as they read their Bibles. When we read the word “God” in the New Testament, we’re talking about the Father (except when we’re not). But there’s more to it than just a useful heuristic.

A Personal God

The consistent reference of Theos to God the Father highlights the relational nature of God. He’s not just some abstract force or distant deity; he’s different from the impersonal gods of paganism or the abstract “Prime Mover” of Greek philosophy. He’s a personal, loving Father. This is central to our Christian identity. God is our Father, and we are his beloved adopted children. God deeply cares for his creation, so much so that he sent his only Son—who is himself God, eternally begotten of the Father, true God from true God—that we might be saved. This is who God is. This is the God who created us. This is the God who saved us. This is the God who reveals himself to us. This is the God we pray to. This is the God we live for.

Notes

[1] Rahner, Karl. “Theos Im Neuen Testament.” Bijdragen 11, no. 3 (1950): 212–36.








Martin Robinson
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